Indigenous People: Subarctic Hunters and Fishers

In studying indigenous people, the culture area south of the Arctic is called the Subarctic. It includes most of what are now Alaska and Canada (excluding the Maritime Provinces—New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island—which are part of the Northeast culture area). Subarctic peoples from Alaska are often collectively referred to as Native Alaskans, while in Canada they are known as First Nations peoples. Although some Eskimo (Inuit and Yupik) peoples also live in the Subarctic culture area, they are generally grouped with Arctic peoples.

The climate of the Subarctic is cool, and the land is fairly flat and covered mostly by swampy evergreen forest. This ecosystem is also called the taiga, or boreal forest. Wildlife is abundant.

Languages of Subarctic Hunters and Fishers

The Subarctic can be divided into two parts based on language families. The Eastern Subarctic is home to speakers of Algonquian languages, including the:

• Innu
• Cree
• Ojibwa (Chippewa).

The Western Subarctic is largely inhabited by Athabaskan speakers, whose territories extend from Canada into Alaska. They include the:

• Chipewyan
• Beaver
• Slave
• Dogrib
• Kaska
• Carrier
• Tanaina
• Deg Xinag.

European Contact and Culture Change of Subarctic Hunters and Fishers

By the 1600s European fur traders had recognized that the taiga provided an optimal climate for the production of dense pelts. These traders greatly influenced the region’s native peoples, as did Christian missionaries. The fur trade had an especially strong impact on traditional economies, as time spent trapping furs could not be spent on acquiring food. This led to a rather rapid increase in the use of purchased food items such as flour and sugar, which were substituted for wild fare.

The fur trade period created a new type of territorial group among Subarctic peoples, known as the home guard or trading-post band. These new groups combined a number of smaller bands.

The growing dependence on fur trapping also led the Cree, Slave, Kaska, and many other groups to alter their annual cycle. In winter the family lived on its trapping grounds. In summer the family brought its furs to the trading post and camped there until fall, enjoying abundant social interaction. The warm months with their long daylight became a time for visiting and often included dances (often to fiddle music), marriages, and appearances by the region’s Anglican or Roman Catholic bishop.

Another change during the fur trade period was the use of dog teams to pull toboggans. Because the teams required large quantities of meat, they were not kept until people began to supplement their diets with flour, sugar, and other European staples. After that point, dog teams became increasingly important in transporting furs to market.

Indian Assimilation

By the late 19th century Canada and the United States had established their dominance over all American Subarctic peoples. The Canadian and U.S. governments promoted Indian assimilation, a policy that attempted to replace native lifeways with those of the dominant culture. Among other measures, both countries forced native children to attend boarding schools where displays of native culture were cruelly punished.

During the 20th century Subarctic peoples encountered great local economic changes in addition to assimilationist policies. Well into the first third of the century, people continued to depend heavily on hunting for food and the fur trade for income.

During the Great Depression of the 1930s, demand for pelts drastically decreased, devastating the region’s cash economy. After World War II, new government restrictions on hunting and trapping slowed economic recovery. In response to the increasing need for income, many native families moved from the forests and trading centers to established northern cities such as Fairbanks (Alaska), Whitehorse (Yukon), and Churchill (Manitoba), as well as to new towns, such as Schefferville (Quebec), Yellowknife (Northwest Territories), and Inuvik (Northwest Territories). These towns offered work in industries such as commercial fishing, construction, mining, and defense.

Cultural Preservation

By the end of the 20th century, many Subarctic peoples had become involved in cultural preservation or revitalization movements. Some of them chose to remain in or relocate to smaller trading-post settlements to follow a more traditional lifestyle. Whether in rural or urban areas, many First Nations peoples and Native Alaskans began to view an intact forest landscape as an essential part of their heritage. They became increasingly concerned about the economic development of the north and used a variety of means, from protest through land claims and other legal actions, to limit the negative effects of such development. Many of their efforts proved successful.

In the United States, the Alaskan Native Claim Settlement Act of 1971 awarded 962 million dollars and 44 million acres (17.8 hectares) of federal land to the native peoples of Alaska. In Canada, the government created the province of Nunavut in 1999 as a homeland for the Inuit.

References:

1. Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) 1971 | Federal Indian law for Alaska tribes. (n.d.). UAF University of Alaska Fairbanks. https://www.uaf.edu/tribal/112/unit_3/alaskanativeclaimssettlementactancsa1971.php
2. American subarctic peoples. (n.d.). Britannica Kids. https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/American-Subarctic-peoples/480462
3. The creation of Nunavut. (2017, August 11). Canada’s History – Canada’s History. https://www.canadashistory.ca/explore/politics-law/the-creation-of-nunavut
4. The economic history of the fur trade: 1670 to 1870. (n.d.). https://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-economic-history-of-the-fur-trade-1670-to-1870/
5. Federal acts & assimilation policies. (n.d.). The U.S.-Dakota War of 1862. https://www.usdakotawar.org/history/newcomers-us-government-and-military/acts-policy
6. Federal acts & assimilation policies. (n.d.). The U.S.-Dakota War of 1862. https://www.usdakotawar.org/history/newcomers-us-government-and-military/acts-policy
7. Forgotten warriors: American Indian home guard (U.S. National Park Service). (2020, May 6). NPS.gov (U.S. National Park Service). https://www.nps.gov/articles/aihomeguard.htm

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